Greetings, fellow hackers, pen testers, and enthusiasts of computer history! Welcome back to another edition of “Computer History Wednesdays.” Today, we’ll dive deep into the world of computing in the 1990s, focusing on the development of CD-ROM technology. As a professional hacker, it is essential to understand the history of the tools we use and the systems we exploit. It’s crucial to know the roots of the technology we rely on to develop new attack vectors and appreciate how far we’ve come.

In this article, we’ll explore the history of CD-ROM technology in four distinct phases, touching on various technical aspects and how they relate to cybersecurity. We’ll also have a section dedicated to fascinating technical tidbits and trivia about CD-ROMs. So, without further ado, let’s jump into the world of CD-ROM technology!

History

Phase 1: The Precursors to CD-ROM Technology

To truly appreciate the development of CD-ROM technology, we need to understand its origins. The story of CD-ROMs begins in the late 1970s and early 1980s, with the emergence of optical storage and the LaserDisc format. LaserDisc, a forerunner to the CD-ROM, was the first commercial optical disc storage medium, which relied on laser technology to read and store data. Although it was primarily used for movies and video content, the LaserDisc format laid the groundwork for the development of the Compact Disc Digital Audio (CD-DA) standard, which ultimately evolved into CD-ROM.

Philips and Sony, the two major players in developing the CD-DA standard, initially focused on creating a digital audio storage solution that surpassed the existing vinyl record and cassette tape formats. The Red Book standard, published in 1980, outlined the specifications for CD-DA and set the stage for the eventual development of CD-ROM. At its core, the Red Book standard was designed to store digital audio data in a series of pits and lands on the disc’s surface, which a laser in the CD player would then read.

The success of the CD-DA format in the audio industry led researchers and engineers to consider the potential of using a similar technology for data storage. In 1982, the first Compact Disc was released, with a storage capacity of 74 minutes (or 650 MB) of digital audio data. The adoption of CD-DA technology for data storage would require the development of a new standard and improvements in data encoding and error correction techniques.

Phase 2: The Birth of CD-ROM

The development of the CD-ROM format began in earnest in the mid-1980s, with the intent to create an affordable, high-capacity storage medium for personal computers. In 1985, the Yellow Book standard was published, defining the specifications for CD-ROMs. The Yellow Book was heavily influenced by the Red Book, borrowing many of its concepts and standards while adapting them for data storage.

At the heart of the CD-ROM format was the adoption of a new data encoding technique known as the Eight-to-Fourteen Modulation (EFM). EFM allowed for a more efficient use of disc space, enabling the storage of greater amounts of data on a single disc. Additionally, the CD-ROM format incorporated more robust error correction capabilities, known as Cross-Interleaved Reed-Solomon Coding (CIRC). CIRC significantly improved the reliability and integrity of data storage, making CD-ROMs an attractive option for software distribution.

One of the first commercially available CD-ROM drives was the Philips CM100, released in 1987. This drive could read data at a rate of 150 KB/s, requiring a proprietary interface card to connect to a computer. The high cost of CD-ROM drives and the limited availability of CD-ROM software initially hampered widespread adoption. However, as prices began to decrease and more software became available, the CD-ROM format quickly gained traction.

By the early 1990s, CD-ROMs had become a standard feature in personal computers, and the technology was being hailed as the future of data storage. Compared to floppy disks, the increased storage capacity of CD-ROMs allowed software developers to create more sophisticated applications with richer multimedia content. CD-ROMs also offered a more efficient method for distributing software, as they could store the equivalent of hundreds of floppy disks on a single disc.

Phase 3: The Evolution and Expansion of CD-ROM Technology

Throughout the 1990s, CD-ROM technology continued to evolve and improve, with faster read speeds, increased storage capacity, and new formats being introduced. One of the most significant advancements during this period was the development of multisession recording, which allowed additional data to be written to a CD-ROM after its initial creation. This innovation enabled users to create their own CD-ROMs, using CD-R (CD-Recordable) or CD-RW (CD-Rewritable) discs, and CD burners.

CD-ROM drives also saw significant improvements in read speeds throughout the 1990s. Early CD-ROM drives had a read speed of 1x (150 KB/s), but by the end of the decade, drives with read speeds of 48x (7.2 MB/s) and higher were common. These faster drives improved the performance of CD-ROM-based applications and helped to solidify further the CD-ROM’s place as the dominant storage medium of the era.

During this period, CD-ROM technology also began to find its way into various consumer electronics, including game consoles, set-top boxes, and portable media players. CD-ROMs became the de facto standard for software distribution and multimedia content, with countless applications, games, and other digital products released in the format.

Phase 4: The Decline of CD-ROM Technology and the Rise of New Formats

By the late 1990s and early 2000s, CD-ROM technology had peaked, and new storage formats that challenged its dominance began to emerge. The introduction of the Digital Versatile Disc (DVD) format in 1997 marked the beginning of the end for the CD-ROM. DVDs offered significantly greater storage capacity (up to 4.7 GB for single-layer discs), faster read speeds, and improved error correction capabilities.

As the DVD format gained popularity, software developers began to shift their focus to the new medium, and CD-ROMs gradually started to become obsolete. Additionally, the rise of high-speed internet connections and digital distribution platforms, such as Steam, further diminished the need for physical storage media like CD-ROMs.

Today, CD-ROM technology has largely been replaced by more advanced storage formats like DVDs, Blu-ray discs, and solid-state drives. However, the impact of the CD-ROM on the world of computing cannot be overstated, as it played a crucial role in shaping the digital landscape we know today.

Cybersecurity

The proliferation of CD-ROM technology in the 1990s had a significant impact on the field of cybersecurity. As software distribution shifted from floppy disks to CD-ROMs, the potential attack surface for hackers and malicious actors increased dramatically. The increased storage capacity of CD-ROMs enabled the spread of more sophisticated malware, while the widespread use of the format made it an attractive target for cybercriminals.

One notable example of CD-ROM-related cybersecurity threats was the rise of “boot sector” viruses, which would infect the boot sectors of CD-ROMs, enabling them to spread rapidly and stealthily between systems. These viruses took advantage of the fact that many computers were configured to boot from CD-ROM by default, allowing the virus to execute before the operating system even loaded.

Another significant security concern during the heyday of CD-ROM technology was the prevalence of “autorun” functionality. This feature, which automatically executed programs upon inserting a CD-ROM, was intended to make software installation and usage more convenient. However, it also created a significant security risk, allowing malware to be executed without user interaction simply by inserting a malicious CD-ROM into a computer.

The widespread adoption of CD-ROMs also had implications for the distribution of pirated software and copyrighted material. The high storage capacity and relatively low cost of CD-ROMs made it easier than ever for hackers and cybercriminals to distribute unauthorized copies of software, games, and other digital products. This increased the prevalence of “cracked” software, which often contained hidden malware or other security vulnerabilities.

Technical Tidbits

Now, let’s delve into some highly technical, low-level facts about CD-ROM technology that will delight any true hacker or computer history enthusiast:

  1. The pits and lands on a CD-ROM are arranged in a continuous spiral, starting from the center of the disc and extending outwards. This spiral track is approximately 5.7 kilometers (3.5 miles) long and has a width of only 0.5 micrometers.
  2. CD-ROMs use Constant Linear Velocity (CLV) to maintain a consistent data transfer rate across the entire disc. This means that the disc’s rotational speed decreases as the laser moves from the inner tracks to the outer tracks.
  3. The smallest data unit on a CD-ROM is known as a “frame,” consisting of 33 bytes. Each frame contains 24 bytes of user data, 8 bytes of error correction data, and 1 byte of control and display information.
  4. The error correction capabilities of CD-ROMs are based on Reed-Solomon codes, which can correct errors at the byte level. This allows for data recovery even in the presence of scratches, dust, or other physical defects on the disc’s surface.
  5. CD-ROMs use Non-Return-to-Zero Inverted (NRZI) encoding to represent the binary data stored in the pits and lands. This encoding scheme helps to minimize the number of transitions between pits and lands, reducing the likelihood of read errors.
  6. The raw data rate of a CD-ROM is 4.3218 Mbit/s, which translates to a user data rate of 1.2288 Mbit/s after accounting for error correction and other overhead.
  7. The filesystem used on most CD-ROMs is the ISO 9660 standard, designed explicitly for read-only optical media. ISO 9660 is a simplified version of the High Sierra Format, developed by a consortium of computer and optical media manufacturers in the early 1980s.
  8. CD-ROMs are often described using a “speed” rating, such as “24x” or “48x.” This rating is a multiple of the original 1x speed, indicating the maximum data transfer rate of the drive. For example, a 48x CD-ROM drive can read data up to 48 times the original 1x speed, or approximately 7.2 MB/s.
  9. The process of manufacturing a CD-ROM involves creating a glass master disc, which is then used to create a metal stamper. This stamper is then used to press the final CD-ROMs, made of polycarbonate plastic and coated with a thin layer of aluminum for reflectivity.
  10. CD-ROMs are susceptible to scratches and other physical damage and disc rot, a form of degradation caused by the breakdown of the aluminum layer or the deterioration of the polycarbonate plastic. Disc rot can result in read errors and, in severe cases, render the CD-ROM unusable.

Trivia

Finally, let’s round out our exploration of CD-ROM technology with some fun and fascinating trivia items:

  1. The first commercially available CD-ROM software was Grolier’s Electronic Encyclopedia, released in 1985. It contained the entire text of the Academic American Encyclopedia, along with a limited selection of images.
  2. The first computer game released on CD-ROM was The Manhole, an interactive adventure game developed by Cyan Worlds and published by Activision in 1988.
  3. In 1993, the video game Myst became one of the first “killer apps” for CD-ROM technology, with its rich multimedia content and immersive gameplay driving sales of CD-ROM drives and computers.
  4. In the mid-1990s, AOL distributed millions of CD-ROMs containing their software as part of an aggressive marketing campaign. At one point, AOL was estimated to be responsible for nearly 50% of all CD-ROMs produced worldwide.
  5. Microsoft’s Encarta, a multimedia encyclopedia released on CD-ROM, was launched in 1993 and quickly became a popular reference tool for students and educators. The final edition of Encarta was released in 2009.
  6. The largest CD-ROM ever produced was a 90 cm (35 in) disc created by the German company Koch Media in 1999. This enormous CD-ROM was fully functional and contained a promotional video for the company.
  7. In 2001, the band TOOL released their album “Lateralus” with a limited edition that included a bonus CD-ROM containing music videos, artwork, and other multimedia content.
  8. Some CD-ROM drives featured a “caddy” system, which required the CD-ROM to be inserted into a plastic protective case before being loaded into the drive. This design was intended to protect the disc from damage, but it proved unpopular due to its added complexity and inconvenience.
  9. The Sega Saturn and Sony PlayStation, both released in the mid-1990s, were among the first game consoles to use CD-ROM technology for game distribution.
  10. In the late 1990s, the unfortunate DIVX format was introduced as an alternative to DVD. DIVX discs were essentially DVD-ROMs with a proprietary copy protection scheme and required a special DIVX player to be played. The format was ultimately discontinued in 1999 due to poor consumer adoption.

Conclusion

The development of CD-ROM technology in the 1990s profoundly impacted the world of computing and digital media. Its increased storage capacity, faster read speeds, and versatility as a medium for software distribution and multimedia content revolutionized the industry and paved the way for the digital landscape we know today. As cybersecurity professionals and computer history enthusiasts, it’s essential to understand and appreciate the history and technical intricacies of CD-ROM technology.

We hope you enjoyed this deep dive into the world of CD-ROMs! Stay tuned for more exciting and informative articles as we continue our journey through computer history, exploring the technologies and innovations that have shaped our digital world. Happy hacking!